Diagram of the feedback mechanism in perception
Sight, the
Visual Process, and Doctrine1
Aubrey T. Allen, O.D.
II
Introduction
We have studied2the globe of the eye and have related its three coats, or tunics, to the Word in its three degrees. Also, we have discussed vision as a process, and have related it to how we acquire understanding of the Word; likewise, we discussed the three degrees of the visual process, and its relationship to the Word. In so doing we traced the visual pathway to the cortical area of the brain. At this point I would like to share with you these beautiful words of Sir Charles Sherrington - where he describes vision.3
Conjugial Love and Regeneration
In a previous paper4 we discussed the right way to approach the
Word. After these prerequisites have been fulfilled, and we
"as-of-self" approach the Word, light is brought to a
focus on the retina. The effort to understand brings it to focus
on the most sensitive layer of the retina, the macula. This area,
we suggest, represents the Writings; and inmostly, the fovea the
Doctrine of the Lord. Here, by means of the Writings, natural
light is converted into spiritual light, and we view the Word as
to its letter from the Lord. Man is then able to confess that the
Writings are in essence spiritual, and that they constitute the
interior life of the letter of the Word. This is the only way
that there can be a progression of the church in conjugial
partners, and in mankind as a whole.
In reference to conjugial partners, they now
begin to confess that they have understanding from the Lord, and
that they live from the Lord. However, this confession is
different in each of them. The male confesses primarily from the
understanding that truth is from Him, and secondarily that he
lives from the Lord. The female confesses primarily that she
lives from the Lord, and secondarily that truth is from Him.
This, because the form of their life is different, consequently
their approach to the Word. The Lord, therefore leads them
differently, but always toward union or oneness of life. However,
the quality of the reception of this life will be dependent upon
their reciprocal relationship toward each other.
Quality of Nerve Fibers in the Retina
We need, now, to describe the difference in the
quality of the nerve fibers in the retina. It has already been
noted that the right eye signifies the feminine nature of man,
and the left eye the masculine nature. In each eye though, there
will be that which corresponds to both good and truth, or in the
opposite sense evil and falsity.
In the female, affections rule, and she is the
form of them, so the temporal or outside fibers of the right eye
represent the love of good in her. The nasal or inner fibers
would seem to represent her inward nature, or the tendency to
love falsity. The masculine nature is a form of truth, so the
outside retinal fibers would seem to represent the love of truth,
while the inward or nasal fibers would seem to represent the love
of self. As these fibers from both eyes leave the retina, and
progress along the visual pathway, they approach a chiasma, or
the pathway where two ways meet. It is here the Lord will
separate their inward nature from their outward nature, and use
good qualities in each to regenerate the dead quality in the
other. His direct approach to each will be used by Him to infill
and fulfill in the other that quality of life that will be a
blessing to them. To do this, at the chiasma, He crosses their
inward, perverted loves over to the other side. In the process in
the male, the love of self represented by the nasal fibers cross
over, and are associated on the other side with the temporal
fibers of the right eye, represented by the love of good.
Internal Qualities Change
As a result the love of self is replaced in him
by the love of good, and constitutes the love of his wife in him,
or his inmost love. In the female, the nasal fibers which
represent the love of falsity, cross over and are associated on
the other side with temporal fibers of the left eye. These fibers
represent the love of truth from the Lord. As a result her inmost
life becomes the love of her husband's understanding, in her. The
temporal fibers on each side, because they represent good
qualities in each, do not cross over, but proceed with this new
association to the lateral geniculate body on each side. This
would seem to represent the inner celestial heaven.
Further Acknowledgment and Confession
As a result of this association - resulting in
the reception of the love of good from his wife - the husband
begins to confess that not only does he have understanding from
the Lord, but also that he lives from the Lord. The female, in
the process of receiving inwardly within herself the love of
truth from her husband, begins to confess not only that the
affection for good is from the Lord, but the truth also which now
constitutes her inmost life, or the understanding of her husband
in her. As a result of this, the husband rejects any idea of
merit in the good that he does, but acknowledges that it is from
the Lord. The wife, also, will take no merit in the understanding
of truth as it relates to life, but confesses that this wisdom is
from the Lord. Consequently, when the fibers from the retina on
each side reach the geniculate bodies, they begin there as new
fibers, and are projected toward the striate area of the cortex
in the form of optic radiations.5
Progression: Acknowledgment Continues.
Thus far our heavenly pair has progressed a long way on the regenerative path. The journey has been full of obstacles, but in overcoming they have gained new delights, and are beginning to really believe, not from the lips but from the heart, that they live from the Lord.
Full conjunction, however, has not taken place.
On the right side we have the association of the nasal fibers
from the left eye, and the temporal fibers from the right eye.
The masculine side of life is receiving love of good from the
female. On the left side there is the association of nasal fibers
from the right eye, and the temporal fibers of the left eye. The
feminine nature of man is being illustrated in truths, and
instantly relating it to good, which is the wisdom of life.
Further Acknowledgment; Full
Conjunction
As they, then, from this point on proceed in
their journey of life, in each and all things they speak, will,
and intend, they give and receive from the other. There is
complete unanimity of life, and in this way they proceed - in
their journey of life - toward area 17, the calcarine cortex.
They know and confess that they are being led by the Lord. Their
mental view in all things, inwardly and outwardly, is from the
other, and from this perspective they have their sight. They have
depth of vision, and fusion in inmost principles, just as,
through fusion of the retinal image from each eye, there is
depth of vision and one sight, so this heavenly pair is seen
at a distance as one angel. This is the way they enter area 17,
and it is here that full conjunction with the Lord takes place;
and it is from this inmost celestial heaven that the Holy City,
New Jerusalem, descends from God.
The Pathway of Life; the Seven Days of
Creation
Here, and in our previous paper, we have
suggested that the visual pathway represents the pathway of life
with the regenerating man. If this is so, then there should be a
relationship between the visual pathway and the Genesis account
of the seven days of creation - which account does, in fact,
describe the stages in the regeneration of man. The following is
meant to be suggestive of such a possible relationship.
| Days of Creation | |
| From extrinsic muscles to the pupil; to the crystalline lens. | |
| From the crystalline lens to the retina. | |
| From the retina to the optic chiasma. | |
| From the optic chiasma to the other side, or to the optic tract. | |
| From the optic tract to the external geniculate body. | |
| From the external geniculate body (optic radiations) to striate area #17. | |
| Rest - Striate area #17. |
Perception
Having discussed the visual process, we have
thereby laid the groundwork for us to understand more clearly
what we mean by perception.6 This in turn may be an aid to us in
understanding what is meant by "as-of-self." The
ability to respond as-of-self to the Lord is what distinguishes
man from beast. The accompanying diagram7 by Kephart illustrates what takes place in
the perceptual process. This diagram can be applied to concepts
in engineering, communication, speech pathology, etc., and it can
be used to illustrate thinking in a variety of ways.
Diagram of the feedback mechanism in perception
Input
In the area marked input, he thinks of it as
just being the organism's reaction to surface stimulation of the
body, and by means of the five senses there is a reaction to it.
He makes it clear that each organic part reacts in a different
way, but in each case this outside energy does not enter into the
organism, but the organism reacts to this energy. Whether from
touch, taste, hearing, smell, or sight, sensitive cells within
the organism react to the external stimulus in their way. These
sensitive cells within the organism are then fired up and a
simultaneous pattern of neural impulses is transmitted to the
projection area of the cortex. There an analogous pattern of
neural impulses is set us by means of the action of internuncial
neurones. Kephart considers that it is this pattern of electrical
impulses, in the sensory projection area of the cortex, which
constitutes the input.
Perceptions Result From the Activities of
the Organism Itself
Perceptions result from the activities of the
organism itself, not from energy outside the body entering into
or through the organism. All things being equal, it should
correspond very closely to the energy impinging upon the
organism, but he tells us we should remember that it is a
translation of outside energy into patterns of neural response.
Integration Process
Kephart considers that once these input
patterns have been generated in the sensory projection area of
the cortex, then by means of internuncial neurones its effects
radiate out into surrounding associated areas. Integration takes
place at this point.
The integration process seems to be one of the
mysteries of neurology. He indicates that although we do not know
exactly how this takes place we must remember that this
integrative process is concerned with all sensory inputs
operating in the organism at any given moment, and that there is
hardly ever just one input present in the organism at any one
time. In the integrative mechanism all these input patterns are
organized and integrated so that the organismic response will
consider all of them in one act.
Kephart further considers that the integrative
process is not only concerned with incoming stimuli at any given
momemt, but also with past experience and memory, and that
a large part of the memory process is a more or less permanent
alteration of the organism. He believes the organismic response
takes into account the memory of past as well as present
activities; therefore, that input patterns have been elaborated
and synthesized.
Output Pattern
This elaborated pattern is translated
into an output pattern, and it may be thought of as a scanning
mechanism. He likens it to the television camera which has a
scanning beam that translates the light in the studio into a
series of electrical impulses. The picture on the television set
is an accurate model of the light distribution in the studio. The
scanning device in the integrative mechanism therefore acts to
translate the afferent and association patterns into a motor
pattern.
He emphasizes the fact that we should remember
the output process is a pattern of neural impulses that occurs
within the organism. This time it is a pattern that can be sent
down to muscle and will result in movement. He believes that
consciousness first occurs at this point in the perceptual
process and we are first conscious of the input patterns when an
output pattern has been generated. Thus we cannot really
"see" until associated areas have been consulted to
attach meaning to this input. When it is fed down to muscle, that
is, an output pattern is generated; it is only then we really
understand or see. This is why seeing is considered to be motor.
Feedback
He brings out the point that on the way to
muscle groups a portion of the output pattern may be drained off
and fed back into the system, and that mind is conscious of
muscle reaction at this point, and will monitor it. This feedback
of the output pattern becomes in itself a part of the input. As
it re-enters on the input end of the system it alters the input
pattern and a new cycle of the perceptual process begins. This
will continue until input exactly matches the output, or until
muscle response is adequate to the organismic demand.
This output pattern need not result in muscular
response on every cycle of the process. We can generate an
output, drain most of it off in feedback for control purposes,
and permit none to go to muscle. Many solutions to a problem may
be tried mentally before any activity is involved. Much of study
and problem solving goes on in this manner.
Before we relate this to the as-of self, we need to review what has been said previously. It was stated8 that in area 17 - the visuosensory area - nerve impulses from both retinae are unified, and that these unified, modified impulses are sent higher up into the nervous system; also that in animals, stimulation of this area results in ocular deviations, but not so in man. Why is this so in the case of animals, and not man? It is because at this point in man volitional movement has been separated from the understanding, and transferred higher up into the nervous system. This is not so in the case of animals, and stimulation of this area will result in ocular deviations because motor fibers are connected with organismic parts on a lower level. This is the reason why animals have knowledge, it seems, already in the organic parts. Their maturation is much quicker than man's but the freedom that they enjoy is on a natural organic level, and not on a higher spiritual level.
It was stated that in lower mammals the superior colliculus provides an integrating mechanism of considerable complexity in relation to visual impulses, and that in monkeys much of the striate area is found on the lateral surface of the occipital lobes. In man, however, all visual fibers end in striate area 17.
It was further stated in that same paper that in man parastriate area 18 is considered to be the visuomotor field, and peristriate area 19 is thought of as the visuopsychic field; also that in man area 18 plus 19 is about three times as large as area 17. In the orangutan, however, area 18 plus area 19 is not twice the size of area 17; and in the monkey area 18 plus 19 is still smaller in relation to area 17.
In man, therefore, these areas have been
transferred higher up in the nervous system, and therein is the
major organic difference between man and beast. The Lord has
separated the will from the understanding. Everything that man
knows he has to learn a different way. The understanding has to
be consulted and pass judgment on it. A new will has to be built
up in the understanding.
The as-of-self
Now we are in a position to relate what has
been said to the as-of-self. We can see, according to the
diagram, that there is a memory of past output patterns. There is
also a memory of present activities, and a contemplation of
future activities. There is elaboration and contemplation of
present truths in anticipation of future action. As we learn new
truths, those that agree with and reinforce past concepts of
truth would seem to go out and return into the input process and
consequently elaborate truth that have been in agreement with our
understanding.
This thought, and elaboration of concepts
according to truth, is not from oneself but from the Lord. It is
He who enables one to understand and see truths in a rational
way. We see truths from him, because He is the truth Itself. The proper
approach to the Word, as explained previously, enables us to
see these truths not from ourselves but from the Lord. This is
why evangelistic activity in the New Church seems to bear such
meager fruit. We cannot cause the world to view the Word as we
do. This can only be done by the Lord from within, or from the
spirit. This does not mean that we should not try to bring the
truth to man, but internal sight, or spiritual sight, comes only
from the Lord.
We come to a point in time when truth must be
grounded in good if our thought is to rise successively.
Perception generally runs horizontally in truths that have been
grounded in good. When these truth have been elaborated, through
conscious thought and action, they can be raised up vertically or
successively only by concepts drawn from previous elaboration.
Truths illustrate and elaborate good, but if we do not apply them
to life they cannot be retained in the memory.
When, therefore, something comes into our
conscious thought that does not agree with good, according to
previous concepts of truth, we should not act on it. It is here
that the as-of-self cycle starts. If it is something that we are
prone to want to do, and we know that it is wrong, we must
acknowledge to the Lord that it is a lie and that we want no part
of it, we must ask for His strength to act, as-of-self, in the
resisting and overcoming this tendency toward disorder. This
acknowledgment will return on the output cycle of the perceptual
process, and be fed back into the input part of it; and will
serve to reinforce previous concepts of good and truth. It is
here that we can better understand what is meant by "influx
is according to efflux."
Acknowledgment Necessary
There is one thing that we must do at this
point in the as-of-self cycle of the perceptual process. We must
acknowledge, and really believe, that we do this from the Lord.
How can we possible do this? We can, simply because we know
without any doubt whatsoever that we live from the Lord.
Consequently, any good that we do as a result of His truth,
really belongs to Him; it is not ours. By shunning evils as sins,
we do good from the Lord, because we live from the Lord.
No one in hell acknowledges that they live from
the Lord, but whole of heaven does. Can we see what has been done
by this as-of-self act, illustrated by the perceptual process? We
have, from the Lord, turned ourselves away from hell, and toward
heaven. We have confirmed ourself in good by acting according to
truth. It will lead, in time, to the absolute rejection of any
hint that the good that we do is our own.
If we can act as-of-self in resisting evil, we
can also do so to acknowledge truth. Because the Lord is Truth
Itself, any understanding of the truth in us is His; it is not
our own. This, because we live from Him and not from ourselves.
This as-of-self acknowledgment will go out of the output end of
the process, and be fed back into the input end, where it will
serve to reinforce previous concepts of good and truth. When the
opportunity permits we will act on it; and this acknowledgment
will go down into muscle. There it will serve to confirm in us
good and truth from the Lord.
Macula Degeneration - Implications
It might be a good time to discuss some of the possible inferences that macula degeneration may hold for the church. Swedenborg has said that "every state of faith may be compared with some state of the eye and its sight - a state of faith in what is true with every normal state of eyesight, and a state of faith in what is false with every perverted state of eyesight." (TCR 346)
Macula degeneration seems to affect more and more people each year, especially the elderly. The causes seem to be multiple such as hemorrages of the surrounding blood vessels cutting off blood supply to the macula; embolisms in any of the surrounding blood vessels resulting in depletion of blood flow to this area; excessive intra-ocular pressure such as glaucoma; arteriosclerotic changes consisting of straightening, narrowing and irregularity of the arterial blood column. These and other abnormal conditions affect the health of the cell tissue of the macula. One thing that is common, a depletion of the blood supply nutrient including oxygen to this most vital area. A cloud begins to hang over central sight and individuals affected gradually are unable to identify objects in this central retinal area.
We have said that the macula area of the eye seems to represent the Writings, and the central part of the macula, called the fovea, the Doctrine of the Lord. Keeping this in mind we find ourselves in a position to understand what might be happening to any church that fails to acknowledge the Lord; also the spiritual cause that seems to be representative of this degenerative disease.
The Lord is life itself, and failing to acknowledge not only that we live from the Lord but that the Divine in Him is Human, and likewise that His Human is Divine would seem to correspond to what is commonly known as macular degeneration - resulting in a cloud hanging over the letter of the Word. The internal spirit of the letter goes unseen and unnoticed. To save mankind from this inability to see, know, and acknowledge who He is, and consequently respond to His love and desire for their salvation, the Lord came as the spirit of truth; to remove the cloud hanging over the letter, to give understanding of the letter and to give us 20/20 spiritual sight as well.
Many people, and nations, who have this disease naturally, might not have it spiritually. Also, a great many people and nations who do not have it naturally might have it spiritually. If they have it spiritually only the Lord knows who they are. That is why those of us who are fortunate enough to have the Writings and acknowledge the truths therein, have such a tremendous responsibility to bring it to others whenever the opportunity presents itself. Also, and always, to cooperate with the Lord in our own regeneration.
In our understanding of what this disease
implies, we should remember never to make spiritual judgments of
anyone who has it.
In Retrospect - Experiences We Likely
Have Had
It is such a heartbreaking experience, and one
all of us of the church must have had at one time or another. We
meet someone who seems to be looking for truth, and we bring them
to the Writings, with joy, in the form of books, periodicals,
sermons, etc. and they receive them in what seems to be an
apparently positive way. After taking a few days to read them
they make the comment that what they have read sounds good, and
it may be true, but it is so far away from what they have been
taught and are used to. They admit they are not comfortable with
what they already have, but they are not comfortable with
something so different either. We then remember the Lord said
"He who loveth father and mother more than me is not worthy
of me." And also He stated "Behold, I make all things
new." We rejoice and are glad in what the Lord has done, but
like Swedenborg, nevertheless, we are sad.(CL 533).
In conclusion
I hope, above all, that if there has been
anything accomplished in writing these papers it has been to
illustrate in a meaningful way that religion is of life. I
have tried to relate doctrine from the Word to organic structure,
and in turn show how structure and its functional processes, when
properly understood, can be used to illustrate and confirm
doctrine.
Each of us, in whatever use we serve, should try to see doctrine in relationship to our use. This, because the Lord is Use itself and He will let us see Him in use if we really desire to do so. There are knowledges particular to every use. They serve to illustrate this use, but one should not construe this to mean that our worldly occupation is necessarily our spiritual use. We should try, insofar as we can, to acquire worldly knowledges. They are first in time. However, spiritual goals should be primary in end; thus, in time, these worldly knowledges should be used to serve spiritual ends. I am reminded of what Dr. N. J. Berridge said:
Providing our method of seeing spiritual things reflected in natural things is sound, the wider and truer our natural knowledge, the better will be our vision of spiritual things. If we can make proper use of the current tremendous growth in scientific knowledge the church will have a better understanding of spiritual matters than ever before; whereby also its love will be strengthened.9
And in Isaiah 19: 23-35 we read:
In that day shall there be a highway out of
Egypt to Assyria, and the Assyrian shall come into Egypt, and the
Egyptian into Assyria, and the Egyptians shall serve with the
Assyrians. In that day shall Israel be the third with Egypt and
with Assyria, even a blessing in the midst of the land: Whom the
Lord of hosts shall bless, saying Blessed be Egypt my people, and
Assyria the work of my hands, And Israel mine inheritance.
Acknowledgment
I would llike to express my appreciation for
the kind encouragement that the late Mr. Lennart Alfelt and Mr.
Boyd Asplundh provided in getting me to write
"something." Without this, most likely, these papers
would never have been written.
COMMUNICATION10
To the Editor:
I have been following with a great deal of
pleasure the articles in The New Philosophy concerning
"Thinking from Correspondences," by Dr. N. J. Berridge.
In the January-March l979 issue he discusses the importance of
distinguishing between representatives, correspondences and
significatives. He states that the information from which we
think should be based as far as possible on true and accurate
natural knowledges. By this I understand that he means that in
determining the truth of any external or internal phenomena, in
this case the bodily function of any organic part, we should
understand as far as possible the process by which it operates.
He states further that "the wider and truer our natural
knowledge the better will be our understanding of spiritual
things." He reemphasizes this in part VII, "Some
Questions about the Eye," (April-June l980 issue, The New
Philosophy) and gives a very good explication of why the eye
is part of the brain, and why the pathway from the eye to the
internal sensory is shorter and more interior than that for sound
perceived by the ear.
There is no need for me to review in detail
what Dr. Berridge has said concerning correspondence as it
relates to the eye. The reader would gain much if he did this for
himself; but I would like to comment on something that is part of
the eye, yet is not the internal aspect of it. I am referring to
the extrinsic muscles of the eye.
We all know that we are not entirely
comfortable when we look at someone who has crossed eyes, or when
we converse with someone and that person will not look at us. Why
is this so? It is because the eyes represent understanding, and
in carrying on a conversation with anyone we get a better
understanding of what is being said if we can see the expression
of their eyes and face at the same time. Visual contact
reinforces the auditory input, our memory of the conversation is
better, and we just feel better about it.
Past superstititions have been hard on
cross-eyed people. Due to no fault of their own they have been
labeled, expressly or not, as being a little loony, or not of
sound mind. If we look a little closer we may see why the effects
of this abnormality may bear such a representation.
Let us review what is said in Arcana
Coelestia 4410, relative to correspondences of the eyes:
"It has been made clear to me by much experience that the
sight of the left eye corresponds to truths which are of the
understanding and the right eye to affections of truth which also
are of the understanding; hence the left eye corresponds to
truths of faith, and the right eye to good things of faith."
We can say, according to this, that the left
eye corresponds to the understanding of things we clearly
perceive to be true, and the right eye to the understanding of
what is good.
Now the eyes are controlled in their movement
by the action of the extrinsic muscles. They serve to move them
in their orbit so that incoming light will stimulate
corresponding points in each retina. Control of this movement is
a learned reflex, and under the auspices of the voluntary nervous
system. This means that we should be able to direct the movement
of our eyes through the conscious effort of our will.
In the early stages of our life we do not have
voluntary control over this system. Our first reaction to light
merely serves to set off an awareness reflex. We seek to move our
head and eyes in the direction of maximum light contrast, and
through this endeavor we can gradually recognize shape and
contour. Though this first recognition is very vague and ill
defined, there is an effort to establish hand contact. Once this
occurs sight is extended and refined under the tutelage of the
active touch.
As we learn to balance the body, first through
crawling and then walking, the input patterns from both retina
are matched more precisely in the visual area of the brain.
Ciliary muscles respond to more refined demand for focus, fusion
is learned, and depth perception becomes part of our experience.
As a result of this sequence of events in our
learning experience, and if there is no anomaly that would
otherwise prevent it from happening, we have established in the
act of seeing what is called a dual effector system. In this
system the voluntary and involuntary components of the nervous
system work together as a team. This they must do, and most
precisely, if we are to meet the demands of information
processing placed upon us by our modern present day environment.
It would seem, according to Arcana Coelestia
1621, 1622 and 1623, that the crystalline lens and various
media represent the first gathering of truth and its presentation
to our understanding. What then do the extrinsic muscles of the
eyes represent? It would seem that they represent our own
efforts, as-of-self, to bring truth to the view of our
understanding, our own as-of-self efforts to seek out the truth,
to move and manipulate it so that we can see it from every angle,
and thus see it in different perspective for the sake of
regeneration and life.
A cross-eyed person, on the other hand, would
seem-to bear the implication of someone who is not doing his part
in the regenerative process; - not doing his part in the search
for truth. This condition represents faith as an intellectual
conceit, hatched up by a depraved will and forced on the
understanding. Outwardly such "faith" may deviate in
any direction, just as crossed eyes do. It has no corresponding
points on the retina as truth does, so it cannot be raised up to
interior principles. "Faith in any other than the true God,
and among Christians in any but the Lord God the Savior, may be
compared to the disease of the eye called strabismus" (TCR
346).
As far as any individual is concerned we know
that this is merely representative, and not necessarily
correspondent. Nothing is reflected upon the person but upon the
thing that is represented (AC 665, also AC 2010 and 4281). But it
does reveal to some extent why, consciously or not, cross-eyed
people have been looked upon with such uneasiness.
References:
1. Aubrey T. Allen, "Sight, the Visual Process, and Doctrine," in The New Philosophy, 85:4: 138-147, l982.
2. Aubrey T. Allen, "Sight, the Visual Process, and Doctrine," in The New Philosophy 84: 1&2: 26-35, l981.
3. Charles Sherrington, Man on His Nature, Cambridge Univ. Press, l942, pp. 128, 129.
4. Aubrey T. Allen, loc. cit.
5. In man, all of the visual fibers end in the striate area of the cortex, but in monkeys and lower mammals much of the striate are 17 is found on the lateral surface of the occipital lobes (See F.H. Adler, Physiology of the Eye, Mosby, 4th edition, l965, p. 680). Herein lies a difference between man and beast on the physical plane.
6. For my understanding of "perception," I am indebted to Newell C. Kephart, "The Perceptual Process," Optometric Extension Program Paper, Series 1, No. 6, March l957, pp. 21-23
7. Newell C. Kephart, The Slow Learner in the Classroom, Merrill, 2nd edition, l971, Figure 6, p. 108. Reproduced with the kind permission of the publisher.
8. Aubrey T. Allen, loc. cit.
9. N. J. Berridge, "Thinking from Correspondences," "The New Philosophy, 82:1:303, 1979.
10. Aubrey T. Allen, The New Philosophy, April-June,
l980, pp. 72-74.
